Seeing Invasive Plants In A New Light

It has been a while but I am back, now as a senior of E.O. Smith's Depot Campus.  Debra has been gracious enough to allow me to publish my own senior paper here on her website for anyone to read.  This paper wasn't just written for the credit, the ultimate purpose was the promotion of conversation pertaining to the usage of commonly seen plants from ecologically disturbed areas all around us.  I hope you appreciate the reading starting below, feel free to comment thoughts and share to anyone else who'd be interested.  

Seeing Invasive Plants In a New Light

In 2014, National Geographic magazine published an article by Emma Marris titled "It's Time to Stop Thinking That All Non-Native Species Are Evil", discussing the fact that simply because a plant or organism is artificially introduced into an ecosystem, it is not always detrimental (Marris 1).  Nevertheless, the majority of scientific research is devoted to eradicating invasive plant species as a primary defense to propagation, yet scientists are losing the battle against these hearty, fast growing nemesis, a battle all but lost and extremely expensive to carry out once the species has become well-established.  In fact, of the thirty planned plant eradication efforts undertaken in the Galapagos Islands since 1996, only four have been successful (Davis 154). Recent studies suggest that effects of invasive species should not be biased towards simply eradication and should instead focus on the positive impacts of invasive species for assessment and management of ecosystems as well as for medicinal practices.  There are countless multi-faceted invasives species that could be mentioned, but this essay will focus on five plants specifically. The first being Japanese Barberry, a shrub that is generally observed within overgrazed meadows, backyards, and damaged areas, quite common place here in New England. Secondly, I will be talking about the beneficial aspects of Houttuynia, another species with invasive characteristics, but still nonetheless useful in the treatment of Lyme and other ailments. In addition to these, this paper will also talk about the benefits of Garlic Mustard, Japanese Knotweed via oral administration and to Mugwort - a plant whose medicinal effects are not limited to ingestion, that can also be useful through topical exposure.   While it may seem beneficial to eradicate these invasive plant species entirely, it would be better for us to figure that since the plants are living so vigorously that they must be here for a reason; they must provide some use to us. Our planet so generously provides an ideal amount of resources for sustainable life, why not treat the Earth with the care, respect and awareness it deserves? This idea resonates with me as I have never really been the type of person who is ok with wasting resources, or having a lack of care for my environment. Call me a hippy, I would rather be ever-mindful of how I treat and interact with the planet in order so that my stay here is long lived.

Though invasive species is by definition an alien species whose introduction does, or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health, not all invasive species are unwanted. There are many cases where scientists have demonstrated evidence for beneficial attributes of invasive plants.  For example, in California, monarch butterflies prefer to spend their winters in the branches of the eucalyptus, an invasive exotic tree transplanted to the state more than 150 years ago and it was only since this time that monarchs have migrated to this region (Vane-Wright 183). In a 2016 New York Times article, author Erica Goode illustrates the pervasive assumption that “what hails from elsewhere is inherently bad, these researchers say, rests more on xenophobia than on science” (Goode 1). She recounts her interview with Ken Thompson, author of “Where Do Camels Belong: Why Invasive Species Aren’t All Bad, where he states that  “invasion” is just another word for “change” and that as a philosopher might say, “the only thing that is certain is that more change is to come” (Goode 1). Plants and animals around the world are more similar than they once were, as globalization has, accidentally or intentionally, just moved exotic species from one place to another. Goode also addresses the idea that although one invasive species may overtake a certain plant community that “as more species migrate, new quandaries are likely to arise. And as the human population increases, driving more animals and plants toward extinction, a species’ second home may be the only one it has” (Goode 1). Ecologist today must therefore examine the cost benefits of plants like the Japanese Barberry, one of the most hated invaders and instead decide how to live and embrace living with these incredible hearty plants, that just happened to come from somewhere not inherently connected to the community beforehand.  

Shrubs, like the Japanese Barberry, Berberis thunbergii are also considered invaders or an alien species both for their growing characteristics and because they were imported to North America. Barberry is a non-native invasive shrub that was first introduced to the continental U.S. in 1875 as an ornamental plant based solely off its desirable appearance spectacularly displayed in autumn when the leaves turn from green to yellow to bright red before eventually falling off to reveal their sharp spines protruding from the base of each node.  The plant is known particularly for its opportunistic attributes - it will thrive in an array of ecosystems such as open fields, woodlands, wetlands, and most of all disturbed areas. This is all due to its extreme adaptability in that it is both shade tolerant and drought resistant a feature particularly useful in regions of the U.S. like CA and NV that have been plagued by severe water shortages. However, care must be taken as it is also known to degrade and dominate functional woodland ecosystems where there is competition for the beams of sunlight that are able to penetrate the tree canopy.  Additionally, researchers like UConn Professor Tom Worthley, have found that tick borne diseases are greatly inhibited by controlling growth of Barberry, a primary example why control of this species invader is necessary (Foran 1). Nevertheless, even though this invasive species has become an increasingly unwanted plant, people should still consider that Japanese Barberry contains many active constituents including Berberine that has many therapeutic effects and supports why this plant cannot be simply labeled as detrimental to ecosystems. Berberine is used to alleviate dysentery and diarrhea caused by food poisoning, in addition to traveller’s diarrhea.  Additionally, Berberine is an alkaloid and both alkaloids and extracts of alkaloid‐containing plants have been used throughout human history as remedies for common ailments (Fester 1). There are an array of ailments that have and can be treated by alkaloids, such as swelling, inflammatory conditions, infections, skin diseases, gastrointestinal ailments, cardiovascular problems, liver problems, and respiratory tract conditions (Kulkarni 317). Berberine and its derivatives act as anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor agents in the digestive system for the development of this natural product as novel anticancer drugs with anti-inflammation activity (Zou 2017). Finally, it is also interesting to note that the Berberine component of plant alkaloids is currently being explored in treatment of neurological disorders such that occurs during the secondary phase of Lyme disease (Kulkarni 317, Buhner 339).  Therefore the plant that is responsible for lodging the ticks themselves, may prove to be an effective treatment to Lyme. Therefore, like many others “invasive species”, careful consideration of benefits versus detrimental effects of eradicating this plants needs to be further studied.

Houttuynia cordata or “chameleon”, is another plant considered to be an invasive species.  It is a creeping aromatic medicinal herb found natively in Northeast India, and China. According to the Invasive Species Specialist Group, Houttuynia cordata is a perennial plant that was introduced as an ornamental for water features in the late '80s but has become an invasive nightmare feared to be a huge risk to native habitats (Houttuynia Cordata 1). It has a high reproductive and vegetative growth rate and quickly overtakes the gardens where it is planted. Control of Houttuynia cordata is difficult as it reproduces by both seeds and rhizome fragments and it is recommended that all “uprooted plant material should be disposed of by incineration or taken to an official transfer station or landfill site [equipped to handle invasive plant material]” (Lewis 4). There are two variations of this species, the Japanese which has an aroma of citrus, and the Chinese which has a scent reminiscent to coriander.  As far as the medicinal benefits, they are countless, including blood purification, anti-inflammatory activity, antibacterial activity, anaphylactic inhibitory activity, anti-allergic activity, antidiabetic activity, antioxidant activity, as well as antiviral activity specifically for herpes simplex virus (Kumar 22). Besides being used for ailments such as dysentery, plants are also crushed and spread in chicken coops to keep away flies in India (Changkija 219). The plant is administered by several methods including raw consumption, leaf juice, young plants are cooked as a pot-herb either to be cooked, or to make a decoction (Kumar 24). Houttuynia cordata is therefore medicine you grow in your backyard for free, a great reason for not destroying this plant.

Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum), mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) and garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) have become particularly problematic in the Northeastern U.S. in recent years in both agricultural, roadside settings and parks (Weston 2005).  Although a nuisance to some, city dwellers enjoy foraging for for both plants during strolls through New York’s Central Park, taking advantage of the easy access and to these trendy new culinary sensations. Knotweed has a tasty lemon flavour can be sauteed it with olive oil and sesame seeds in combination with green beans while mugwort is used as a slightly bitter addition to salads or a rub on meats. The biennial garlic mustard can be identified as edible when it’s coarsely toothed leaves,1-3’ high have long-stalked blooms white flowers, ¼-⅓” wide, smelling of garlic when crushed (Newcomb 138). Author Marie Viljoen describes vegetation in Central Park as “higher up are swathes of invasive daylilies, garlic mustard, Japanese knotweed and field garlic ... (and recommends learning) to recognize ubiquitous mugwort: it may be a pest but it’s the best pest for a nest in the pot. Sorry. Spring fever” (Viljoen 1).These “invaders” also have other therapeutic uses as Japanese knotweed helps in treatment for cough, hepatitis, jaundice, burns and snake bites and recent pharmacological and clinical studies have indicated that Japanese knotweed has “antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and cardioprotective functions” (Zhang 1). Mugwort, easily spotted by their leaves with pointed lobes, white-woolly beneath” (Newcomb, 428) has therapeutic uses including treatment for epilepsy (Buznego 847), as a remedy to insomnia, relief to menstrual pain/cramps, stomach pain, indigestion, as well as a stimulant for irregular menstruation (Lee 3325).  Since its been shown to stimulate menstruation it should be avoided by pregnant women, as it will induce miscarriage. Apart from its therapeutic effects, one must still consider its invasive and seemingly negative growth characteristic, which is that its roots inhibit the growth of some below-ground fungi that many native plants require, reducing the ability of tree seedlings to survive in a sea of this plant. However, new research has “found that invaded areas have a greater diversity that of fungi, perhaps because the dominant ones disappeared” (Roman 1) and there is a strong correlation between biodiversity and stability of ecosystems (Loreau 106). Organic growers may consider accepting garlic mustard in planters near their gardens to thwart deer who rarely feed on it. In the wake of devastating wildfires in the Northwestern U.S., garlic mustard may even be considered as a plausible form of ground cover, and in turn would provide erosion control thanks to its vigorous root growth. As more and more people attempt to both live and eat in an ecologically friendly manner, these three plants are standouts towards that ideal.

It is time to reconsider vilifying non-native species for driving what are considered “native” species to extinction and condemning them as destructive polluters of “natural” environments. Cornell University ecologist David Pimentel estimates that the U.S. spends around $120 billion each year to control invasive species. Given that some of these species like garlic mustard can be quite palatable, why not follow the idea, “If you can’t beat ’em, eat ’em.” (Ohlson 6).  Many of these plant species are out of control because they have no natural predators, so why not convince the fiercest predator of all—human beings—to make good use of them as food and therapeutic remedies? If there’s one thing research into this subject can teach someone, it is not to judge a species on its place origin. If a plant has nutritional or medicinal gain, place those attributes over potentially aggressive growth habits, with discretion of course.

Works Cited

Aulakh, Jatinder. “Woody Vines-Identification and Control”.  The Connecticut Agricultural

Experiment Station, www.ct.gov/caes.

Buhner, Stephen Harrod. Healing Lyme Disease Coinfections: Complementary and Holistic Treatments for Bartonella and Mycoplasma 1st Edition. Healing Arts Press, 2013, books.google.com/books?id=Ul8oDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT158&lpg=PT158&dq=lyme+disease+berberine&source=bl&ots=fh4vbXCICu&sig=eh-n-7SgBOJPTuZ1skRUBG8TwhA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb2dbo1ZHZAhWxtlkKHcIxAns4ChDoAQg0MAI#v=onepage&q=berberine&f=false. Print.

Buznego, María T., and Héctor Pérez-Saad. “Acute Effect of an Extract of Ambrosia Paniculata (Willd.) O. E. Schultz (Mugwort) in Several Models of Experimental Epilepsy.” Epilepsy & Behavior, vol. 5, no. 6, Dec. 2004, pp. 847–851., doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.07.006. Print.

Changkija, Sapu. "Folk Medicinal Plants of the Nagas in India." Asian Folklore

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pp. 153–4. Print.

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onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470015902.a0001914.pub2/full.

Foran, Sheila. “Controlling Japanese Barberry Helps Stop Spread of Tick-Borne Diseases.”

UConn Today, UConn Communications, 27 Feb. 2012,

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“Houttuynia Cordata.” Issg Database: Ecology of Houttuynia Cordata, 4 Apr. 2006, issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=854&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN. Web.

Kulkarni, S. K., and Ashish Dhir. “Berberine: a Plant Alkaloid with Therapeutic Potential for Central Nervous System Disorders.” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 24, no. 3, 2010, pp. 317–324. Print.

Kumar, Manish, Satyendra K. Prasad, and S. Hemalatha. “A Current Update on the

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Lee, S.J., et al. “Estrogenic Flavonoids from Artemisia Vulgaris L.” Journal of Agricultural

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Lewis, Penny. “After a 20-Year Dormancy, It Raised Its Ugly Head - Ecological Landscape

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Japanese Barberry: A Highly beneficial invasive

While there are several types of Barberry, the particular species I’ll be focusing on is Berberis thunbergii, otherwise known as Japanese Barberry.  Most Barberries are non-native to New England - those that aren't were introduced to the US in 1875 as an ornamental plant.  Back when it was introduced, it was welcomed - but since that time, most people (except for aboriginal folks, who use and make the most of it) consider it an undesirable pest.  

As most invasive plants do, Japanese Barberry spreads rapidly and can hinder or deter the growth of other plants.  It’s especially prevalent in forests or areas overgrazed by deer, due to the newly available space for it to take over - in other words, it truly behaves as an invasive, displaying opportunistic characteristics.  However, while this plant may seem to pose a threat on one hand, on the other hand, it's also an indispensable medicinal herb.  The term “barberry” is an umbrella term - while it’s often used to allude to one species (Common Barberry, or Berberis vulgaris), I may also use it to refer to all 14 species, but I will try my best to label the individual species when in context.   

There are an array of positive qualities that this plant offers, including its effectiveness against pathogens such as E. coli, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumonia, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Bacillus dysenteria, Vibro cholera, Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease), Candida, cancer, malaria, and Giardia.  Barberry also has a strong potential for treating West Nile Virus.

 Like goldenseal, this invasive is berberine rich, which is a powerful component that fights bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic, as well as yeast infections.  In addition to that, it could be used as treatment for encephalitic symptoms.  Berberine is the alkaloid responsible for the rich yellow coloring in the roots - a characteristic that may help someone to identify it when in nature.  Berberine has been proven to impede the growth of bacteria as well as helping the immune system to grow stronger and perform more efficiently. Barberry also contains the vitamins A and C, as well as several other constituents such as Beta-carotene, Rutin, Quercetin, Kaempferol, and Caffeic acid.  

As for the edibility of the plant, the leaves and the red berries are edible.  In the spring, the leaves will be more desirable and easier to consume than the rest of the year, since the leaves become more bitter tasting as the plant ages.  Since barberry includes ascorbic acid, a powerful antioxidant, it is also commonly sought out for its immune enhancing capabilities as well as various other benefits, such as protection from the common cold, lowering blood pressure, and even physical performance in older people. 

Alternate leaf structure, young spring edible leaves

Berberine-rich yellow roots

What effect do Crows have on your garden?

Are crows really all that bad for your garden? You may have a quick retort - “of course, scarecrows exist”.  However, with minor research you’ll come to learn that these birds are in fact quite intelligent, and of little harm to your to garden.  According to an informational article from birding.in: “Their brain-to-body ratio is almost equal to that of dolphins and only slightly lower than that of humans”!  The latin name of this species is Corvus brachyrhynchos and it is the second largest perching bird to the Common Raven.  Crows have been noted for their “tool-using” abilities, using wood sticks as probes.  

As for the physical attributes of these birds, they are all black birds with a purple or green sheen seen in direct sunlight.  They have fan-shaped tails, and this is one identifying factor in the identification of crows vs. ravens.  While the Common Raven has a wedge-shaped tail, the crow’s tail looks like a handheld fan.  There are either few or no physical differences between genders - the same is true for adolescents.  For their size, they can be anywhere from 17 - 24” in length, with a wingspan around 3’.  

They are partial to non-migrators, meaning that they can be seen year-round.  Most of the feeding is done on the ground, even though these birds are arboreal.   While crows have been recognized to eat carrion, they are not specialized scavengers - roadkill makes up only a fraction of their entire diet.  Crows are very adaptive - they’ll eat whatever they can wherever they are.  They’re omnivorous in their diets eating seeds, grains, insects, spiders, nuts, fruit, snails, mice, snakes, frogs, and even live fish.  This is where the true benefit of embracing crows’ presence comes to light - according to humanesociety.org: “A crow family can eat 40,000 grubs, caterpillars, armyworms, and other insects in one nesting season. That’s a lot of insects many gardeners and farmers consider pests. These good environmental citizens also transport and store seeds, thus contributing to forest renewal. And their habit of eating carrion makes them part of nature’s cleanup crew.”  

In addition, according to the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, “Crows are known to drop hard shelled nuts onto a street, and then wait for passing automobiles to crack them. Similarly, along the coast they drop mussels and other shellfish on rocks to crack the shells and expose the flesh.”  That is just one example that I personally find compelling enough to prove that these birds are extraordinarily intelligent.  So the next time you come across a crow or a murder of crows, think before you start calling them names; they might help your garden - not to mention they’ll actually hold a grudge against you for doing such things as hollering or shooing them away.  

Common Medicinal Mushrooms Part Three: Maitake

For today’s installment of Common Medicinal mushrooms, I will be talking about Maitake (Grifola frondosa), sometimes known as Hen of the woods, “cloud mushroom”, rams head,  or sheep’s head mushroom.  The Maitake mushroom is a choice edible if you happen to be a mushroom forager. Found in North America - mainly Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic states, however, they are not exclusive to these parts - Maitake is also found indigenously to the northeastern regions of Japan as well as the temperate hardwood regions of both China and Europe.  

As for their habitat, Maitake can be found on stumps or at the base of dead or dying deciduous hardwoods, especially oak, elm maple, blackgum, beech, and occasionally on larch.  If you’re trying to find these mushrooms in the wild - prime time is from September - November.  Maitake are anti-tumor, anti-diabetic, anti-viral help relieves the effects of chemotherapy, and in addition to all that Maitake is also used as a treatment for hypertension due to data shown in trials on the mushroom extracts hyperglycemic effect.  

There is early research showing that Maitake can be used as treatment to an array ailments or diseases: Diabetes, HIV/AIDS, Cancer, Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS), Hepatitis, Hay Fever, High cholesterol, weight loss/weight control - also may improve ovulation in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).  For more information on Maitake mushrooms, check out the links below, and be sure to check out Debra’s delicious Maitake sauté too.  

https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/maitake

https://www.google.com/amp/s/wildfoodism.com/2014/09/29/5-unique-health-benefits-of-the-maitake-mushroom/amp/

http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/benefits-maitake-mushroom-extract-5419.html

http://www.m.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-560/maitake-mushroom

http://www.mushroom-appreciation.com/maitake-mushroom.html#sthash.fqsuVEXJ.wicWhntE.dpbs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C0SxhSDOmHc

Common Medicinal Mushrooms Part Two: Shiitake

While Shiitake (also known in Latin as Lentinula edodes) is a commonly known gourmet mushroom, it also has beneficial medicinal qualities.  As a major adaptogenic fungus, it's non-toxic, normalizing and non-specific - meaning that it doesn’t go after just one health issue, it goes after all of them.  

More specifically, shiitake as an adaptogen is especially beneficial to heart health. In addition to this - all or most edible mushrooms are major supporters of our bodies immune system. One benefit here is sheer simplicity - because shiitake are edible, you don’t have to take them as medicinal products, they’re best used when included in soups, stocks, and other culinary preparations.  

Also, like all mushrooms, shiitake are rich in polysaccharides.  Polysaccharides are the key thing you’re looking to capture when creating mushroom extracts or other medicinal products from mushrooms.  

Shiitake grow on hardwoods, including maple and oaks - all over the world.  Can be grown at home too in mushroom buckets.  In general, mushrooms are high in antioxidants which in turn makes them combatants to free radical damage.  Shiitake is not native to the United States - only are they native to East Asia - so if you’re looking to find them in your woods, you’re out of luck.  Stay tuned for the next update in this series of Common Medicinal mushrooms - Maitake.  Also, I was fortunate enough to come across one of the best medicinal, and gourmet mushroom distributors around - Motown Mushrooms booth at the Connecticut Flower and Garden show.  Make sure to check them out and support your local growers.  For more information about Shiitake mushrooms, feel free to take a glance at this link.  

http://www.shiitakemushroomlog.com/Shiitake-Lore-s/108.htm

Common Medicinal Mushrooms Part One: Reishi

Today I wanted to share a brief, but important message: never underestimate the value of fungus!  I’m sure you weren’t aware that some of the most common wild species are superfoods.  Through the next three posts, I’ll be talking about three common medicinal mushrooms - reishi, maitake, and shiitake.  

Today, I’ll start with Reishi.  The latin name is Ganoderma tsugae - coming from Tsuga canadensis, latin for Eastern Hemlock tree.  It grows on hardwood trees and is most often found in hemlock forests.  While it's usually found in June, it doesn’t seem to have a set fruiting time according to Adam Haritan, one of my favorite mycophiles, who actually found a fruiting body in December!  Since we’re focusing on consuming these particular mushrooms for their medicinal benefits, it’s good to mention that, of course, they are non-toxic. In addition, they can be taken daily without side effects.  When taken regularly, they can restore the body to its natural state, enabling all organs to function normally.  Another interesting note is that if you know somebody who happens to be going through chemotherapy, this particular species has been shown to enhance immune response and alleviate the side effects of chemotherapy such as nausea.  In general, reishi mushrooms are used mainly for medicinal purposes - to enhance our body's immunity.  While reishi is typically not used in culinary preparations - they are non-toxic and are prepared as extracts, powders, and chopped and dried for use in bone broths.  For more information on Reishi mushrooms, take a look at the link below.  

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gv0rgT0NODM

http://www.reishi.com/what-is-reishi.htm

Image taken from http://www.woodlandessence.com/herbal.htm

So you've ingested a toxic mushroom, what's happening inside your body?

There is a wide range of toxic mushrooms out there just waiting to do bad things to your body.  Whether they're psilocybin mushrooms, which have psychoactive effects similar to LSD, or they're what is widely considered as the deadliest mushroom - Amanita phalloides; the bottom line is that each mushroom will have a similar detriment to your overall health.  These effects can range from gastrointestinal irritants to...well, death.  Interestingly enough, toxic mushrooms also yield “trips” similar to those produced by psilocybin.  However, these trips are not pleasant and occur commonly by mistake in people who seek to get high. All in all, they shouldn’t even be called “trips” because they generally involve hospitalization rather than the sought after hallucinogenic effect.  

While your body may conceal the adverse effects, you’re not completely out of the water. While in some circumstances the most obvious symptoms may appear in 6 hours or less, on not-so-rare occasions, they may not even appear for 6 weeks or so! That’s right, 6 weeks. Your body would be deteriorating over that period of time, slowly wasting away...and you wouldn’t even realize it until it had gotten far worse.  That’s the true danger of these toxic mushrooms. The slow, brooding process that takes place once ingested. It’s not quick, and it certainly isn’t painless.  

These elapsed effects are linked to orellanine - speaking to the cases with GI onset greater than 24 hours and up to 21 days.  Your liver, as well as your kidneys, are the most vulnerable organs to this toxin.  The primary result of ingesting orellanine is delayed kidney damage.  One example of a mushroom you may come across that contains this toxin is Cortinarius orellanosus.

Gyromitrin contains a highly toxic, carcinogenic compound known as monomethylhydrazine.  This compound is used by NASA as rocket fuel, which really speaks for itself, doesn’t it?  As for the effects Gyromitrin has on our bodies, symptoms start within 2 to 24 hours after ingestion and they include headaches and abdominal distress.  In severe cases, liver, kidney and red blood cell damage may occur - which in turn may cause death.  As mentioned earlier, gyromitrin is a known carcinogen so if taken at a non-destructive dose, the ingestion of the toxin may lead to cancerous trouble down the line.  

Amanitin is arguably the most dangerous of toxins mentioned in this article - due to how the victim may appear to recover fully about 2-3 days after ingestion.  Amatoxins work in stages that include minor to worsening stages which lead to death.  The effects of this particular toxin aren’t concrete - see they vary depending on the situation as well as the individual.  For more information, please visit the attached links.

http://www.cmsweb.org/articles/poisonings_in_NA.htm

Mushroom Poisoning Syndromes

Hi, I'm Gabe...

Hello everyone, my name is Gabriel Mindek, but you can call me Gabe.  I am a 16-year-old Junior year student from the E.O. Smith Depot Campus, a Big Picture school.  Now, you may be wondering what that means...with the Big Picture program, I have the opportunity to gain real-world experience by going to an internship two days a week (Tuesdays & Thursdays) rather than being subject to the common core curriculum. My internship is with Debra Hultgren, who as you know, is the owner of this website and business.  One requirement of my student internship is a project that benefits both the student and the mentor. At the Depot Campus, projects like these are a requirement for every internship. 

In my case, my mentor and I concluded that starting my own personal blog would help further this website and benefit everyone involved. As for the goals of my blog, I will be writing weekly columns with a focus on mycology, science, wellness, and photography in order to serve as reliable informational resource. With this project, I hope to increase my ability to comfortably share my ideas as well as have a web presence for my research and related photography.

In the coming days, I'll be posting my first official column. I hope you will join me in my journey to make this blog a success. Until next time, look forward to learning about the treatment for none other than mushroom poisoning!